An Introduction to (Some of) the Main Schools of Philosophy

For centuries, various schools of philosophy have shaped the way people approach life’s biggest questions. Five schools of thought—Stoicism, Nihilism, Existentialism, Realism, and Naturalism—offer diverse ways of thinking about existence, knowledge, and human behavior. Here's a breakdown of all 5 and the thinkers who shaped them.

1. Stoicism

Stoicism, founded in ancient Greece by Zeno of Citium in the 4th century BCE, teaches that virtue, wisdom, and rationality are the keys to a fulfilling life. The central idea of Stoicism is to live in harmony with nature, accepting things we cannot control, and focusing on self-discipline. This mindset encourages emotional resilience by teaching that while oftentimes we cannot control what happens to us, we can control our reactions to them.

The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, one of Stoicism’s most famous figures, stressed the importance of maintaining inner peace in a chaotic world. His meditations on life, written in the aptly titled book Meditations, remain influential today. Another notable Stoic was the slave-turned-philosopher Epictetus, whose teachings on freedom and inner strength continue to resonate with readers of his transcribed lectures, the Discourses of Epictetus.

2. Nihilism

Nihilism is the philosophical belief that life lacks inherent meaning, purpose, or value. Rooted in skepticism, it challenges traditional views of morality, religion, and societal norms, suggesting that all these things are baseless and that life is fundamentally meaningless. Nihilism emerged as a reaction to the decline of religious belief and the rise of modernity, particularly in the 19th century.

Renowned 19th century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who is often associated with Nihilism, was actually staunchly opposed to pure Nihilistic thought. In reality Nietzsche was much more aligned with the tenets of Existentialism. Other noteworthy thinkers that are commonly associated with Nihilism include Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, and Ivan Turgenev. Funnily enough, it is very difficult (if not impossible) to identify anyone who can be classified as a true 100% Nihilist. Most famous philosophers who explore Nihilistic thought often only do so to critique or challenge existing beliefs, instead of fully embracing Nihilism.

3. Existentialism

Existentialism is closely related to nihilism but offers a different perspective on life's meaning. Existentialist thinkers believe that while life may not have inherent meaning, people have the freedom and responsibility to create their own purpose. This philosophy emphasizes personal choice, individual freedom, and the search for meaning in an indifferent world.

Jean-Paul Sartre, a French philosopher, is considered the father of existentialism. He argued that people are "condemned to be free," meaning that our lives are shaped by the choices we make in the face of an absurd universe. Simone de Beauvoir, another prominent existentialist, explored the implications of freedom, particularly in terms of gender. Existentialism emboldens us to live authentically and embrace the freedom of creating our own meaning in a world without clear guidelines.

4. Realism

Realism asserts that reality exists independently of our thoughts, beliefs, or perceptions. Realists argue that the world has an objective existence, whether or not people are actually aware of it.

Aristotle is often seen as an early realist, emphasizing that knowledge is gained from observing the natural world. In the modern era, G.E. Moore and Bertrand Russell advanced the ideas of realism in their rejection of idealism and their support of objective truth. Realism has greatly influenced science and logic, promoting the idea that the world operates according to discoverable, non-negotiable laws.

5. Naturalism

Naturalism is the belief that everything can be explained by natural causes and laws, without recourse to supernatural or spiritual explanations. It states that science and empirical observation are the best and most efficient ways to understand the universe and that everything in existence is part of the natural world.

Charles Darwin, through his theory of evolution, is one of the most influential figures in naturalism. While he was not a “philosopher” by many modern and historical standards, Darwin’s work demonstrated how natural processes could possibly explain the development of life on Earth, challenging traditional religious explanations. Other notable individuals such as David Hume and Baruch Spinoza contributed to naturalist thinking by emphasizing reason and the natural laws that dictate human behavior and society.

Conclusion

Each of these schools of philosophy—Stoicism, Nihilism, Existentialism, Realism, and Naturalism—offers a unique perspective on life, knowledge, and the universe. From the emotional resilience of Stoicism to the personal freedom of Existentialism, these philosophies provide frameworks for grappling with life’s most complex questions. Whether you lean toward the naturalist focus on science or the realist belief in objective truth, exploring these philosophical traditions can broaden your understanding of the world and your place within it.